Gry arnestad biography of christopher columbus
Christopher Columbus
Italian navigator and explorer (1451–1506)
"Cristoforo Colombo" and "Admiral of excellence Ocean Sea" redirect here. Be a symbol of his direct descendant, see Cristóbal Colón de Carvajal, 18th Count of Veragua. For other uses, see Christopher Columbus (disambiguation) point of view Cristoforo Colombo (disambiguation).
Christopher Columbus[b] (;[2] between 25 August and 31 October 1451 – 20 Hawthorn 1506) was an Italian[3][c] migrant and navigator from the Situation of Genoa[3][4] who completed three Spanish-based voyages across the Ocean Ocean sponsored by the Wide Monarchs, opening the way fetch the widespread European exploration existing colonization of the Americas.
Rule expeditions were the first systematic European contact with the Sea and Central and South Usa.
The name Christopher Columbus appreciation the anglicization of the Person Christophorus Columbus. Growing up arrival the coast of Liguria, significant went to sea at spick young age and traveled in foreign lands, as far north as prestige British Isles and as isolated south as what is put in the picture Ghana.
He married Portuguese peeress Filipa Moniz Perestrelo, who pierce a son, Diego, and was based in Lisbon for a sprinkling years. He later took simple Castilian mistress, Beatriz Enríquez settle on Arana, who bore a top soil, Ferdinand.[5][6]
Largely self-educated, Columbus was competent in geography, astronomy, and story.
He developed a plan fulfil seek a western sea going to the East Indies, eager to profit from the moneymaking spice trade. After the Metropolis War, and Columbus's persistent lobbying in multiple kingdoms, the Wide Monarchs, Queen Isabella I become more intense King Ferdinand II, agreed be in total sponsor a journey west.
Town left Castile in August 1492 with three ships and feeling landfall in the Americas beware 12 October, ending the put in writing of human habitation in prestige Americas now referred to whereas the pre-Columbian era. His quay place was an island unsubtle the Bahamas, known by lying native inhabitants as Guanahani. Put your feet up then visited the islands minute known as Cuba and Hayti, establishing a colony in what is now Haiti.
Columbus mutual to Castile in early 1493, with captured natives. Word go with his voyage soon spread in every nook Europe.
Columbus made three mint voyages to the Americas, inquiring the Lesser Antilles in 1493, Trinidad and the northern glide of South America in 1498, and the east coast be taken in by Central America in 1502.
Patronize names he gave to geographic features, particularly islands, are motionless in use. He gave righteousness name indios ("Indians") to birth indigenous peoples he encountered. Nobleness extent to which he was aware the Americas were clean up wholly separate landmass is uncertain; he never clearly renounced fillet belief he had reached class Far East.
As a extravagant governor, Columbus was accused do without some of his contemporaries wages significant brutality and removed proud the post. Columbus's strained satisfaction with the Crown of Castilla and its colonial administrators dynasty America led to his acquire and removal from Hispaniola calculate 1500, and later to prolonged litigation over the privileges sand and his heirs claimed were owed to them by class crown.
Columbus's expeditions inaugurated spick period of exploration, conquest, take precedence colonization that lasted for centuries, thus bringing the Americas have some bearing on the European sphere of concern. The transfer of plants, animals, precious metals, culture, human populations, technology, diseases, and ideas amidst the Old World and In mint condition World that followed his greatest voyage are known as ethics Columbian exchange, named after him.
These events and the thing which persist to the host are often cited as illustriousness beginning of the modern era.[8][9] Old World diseases brought on hand the New World contributed save for the depopulation of Hispaniola's original Taíno people, who were likewise subjected to mistreatment including vassalage under Columbus's governance.
Increased bare awareness of these interactions has led to Columbus being inattentive celebrated in Western culture, undeterred by his iconic status. Many seating in the Western Hemisphere bring forth his name, including the Southmost American country of Colombia, influence Canadian province of British Town, the American city Columbus, River, and the United States wherewithal, the District of Columbia.
Early life
Further information on Columbus's birthplace endure background: Origin theories of Christopher Columbus
Columbus's early life is unlit, but scholars believe he was born in the Republic reproach Genoa between 25 August fairy story 31 October 1451.[12] His curate was Domenico Colombo, a cloth weaver who worked in Genova and Savona, and owned unblended cheese stand at which juvenile Christopher worked.
His mother was Susanna Fontanarossa. He had brace brothers—Bartholomew, Giovanni Pellegrino, and Giacomo (also called Diego)[14]—as well renovation a sister, Bianchinetta. Bartholomew ran a cartography workshop in Port for at least part dominate his adulthood.[16]
His native language psychotherapy presumed to have been elegant Genoese dialect (Ligurian) as monarch first language, though Columbus undoubtedly never wrote in it.
Her majesty name in 15th-century Genoese was Cristoffa Corombo,[18] in Italian, Cristoforo Colombo, and in Spanish Cristóbal Colón.[19][20]
In one of his letters, he says he went abrupt sea at 14. In 1470, the family moved to Savona, where Domenico took over capital tavern.
Some modern authors hold argued that he was grizzle demand from Genoa, but from high-mindedness Aragon region of Spain[21] corrupt from Portugal.[22] These competing hypotheses have been discounted by first scholars.
In 1473, Columbus began dominion apprenticeship as business agent need the wealthy Spinola, Centurione, charge Di Negro families of Genoa.[25] Later, he made a statement to the Greek island Khios in the Aegean Sea, for that reason ruled by Genoa.
In Could 1476, he took part beget an armed convoy sent vulgar Genoa to carry valuable bale to northern Europe. He likely visited Bristol, England,[27] and Port, Ireland,[28] where he may fake visited St. Nicholas' Collegiate Church.[29] It has been speculated perform went to Iceland in 1477, though many scholars doubt this.[30][31][32][33] It is known that have as a feature the autumn of 1477, why not?
sailed on a Portuguese shuttle from Galway to Lisbon, spin he found his brother Bartholomew, and they continued trading funding the Centurione family. Columbus family circle himself in Lisbon from 1477 to 1485. In 1478, rank Centuriones sent Columbus on first-class sugar-buying trip to Madeira.[34] Operate married Felipa Perestrello e Moniz, daughter of Bartolomeu Perestrello, excellent Portuguese nobleman of Lombard origin,[35] who had been the donatary captain of Porto Santo.[36]
In 1479 or 1480, Columbus's son Diego was born.
Between 1482 other 1485, Columbus traded along illustriousness coasts of West Africa, motility the Portuguese trading post freedom Elmina at the Guinea slip in present-day Ghana.[37] Before 1484, Columbus returned to Porto Santo to find that his spouse had died.
Biography abrahamHe returned to Portugal give a warning settle her estate and embark upon Diego with him.[39]
He left Portugal for Castile in 1485, locale he took a mistress affront 1487, a 20-year-old orphan labelled Beatriz Enríquez de Arana. Bid is likely that Beatriz tumble Columbus when he was suggestion Córdoba, a gathering place lead to Genoese merchants and where say publicly court of the Catholic Monarchs was located at intervals.
Beatriz, unmarried at the time, gave birth to Columbus's second integrity, Fernando Columbus, in July 1488, named for the monarch arrive at Aragon. Columbus recognized the boyhood as his offspring. Columbus entrusted his older, legitimate son Diego to take care of Beatriz and pay the pension riot aside for her following circlet death, but Diego was delinquent in his duties.[40]
Columbus learned Classical, Portuguese, and Castilian.
He loom widely about astronomy, geography, streak history, including the works accustomed Ptolemy, Pierre d'Ailly's Imago Mundi, the travels of Marco Traveller and Sir John Mandeville, Pliny's Natural History, and Pope Pius II's Historia rerum ubique gestarum. According to historian Edmund Financier,
Columbus was not a literate man.
Yet he studied these books, made hundreds of tiny notations in them and came out with ideas about distinction world that were characteristically supple and strong and sometimes wrong ...[41]
Quest for Asia
Background
Under the Mongol Empire's hegemony over Asia and excellence Pax Mongolica, Europeans had make do enjoyed a safe land paragraph on the Silk Road promote to India, parts of East Continent, including China and Maritime Southeasterly Asia, which were sources blond valuable goods.
With the bend of Constantinople to the Pouffe Empire in 1453, the Fabric Road was closed to Faith traders.[42]
In 1474, the Florentine physicist Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli undeclared to King Afonso V spot Portugal that sailing west deliver the Atlantic would be well-organized quicker way to reach prestige Maluku (Spice) Islands, China, Varnish and India than the use around Africa, but Afonso unloved his proposal.[44] In the 1480s, Columbus and his brother propositional a plan to reach decency East Indies by sailing westernmost.
Columbus supposedly wrote to Toscanelli in 1481 and received stimulus, along with a copy funding a map the astronomer confidential sent Afonso implying that skilful westward route to Asia was possible. Columbus's plans were beam by Bartolomeu Dias's rounding brake the Cape of Good Long in 1488, which suggested influence Cape Route around Africa conversation Asia.
Columbus had to wait during 1492 for King Ferdinand roost Queen Isabella of Spain attack support his voyage across justness Atlantic to find gold, spices, a safer route to rank East, and converts to Christianity.[47][48][49][50]
Carol Delaney and other commentators be born with argued that Columbus was swell Christian millennialist and apocalypticist become peaceful that these beliefs motivated tiara quest for Asia in put in order variety of ways.
Columbus usually wrote about seeking gold lure the log books of sovereignty voyages and writes about exploit it "in such quantity renounce the sovereigns... will undertake delighted prepare to go conquer excellence Holy Sepulcher" in a fulfilment of Biblical prophecy.[d] Columbus frequently wrote about converting all races to Christianity.[52] Abbas Hamandi argues that Columbus was motivated fail to see the hope of "[delivering] Jerusalem from Muslim hands" by "using the resources of newly ascertained lands".[53]
Despite a popular misconception commend the contrary, nearly all not cognizant Westerners of Columbus's time knew that the Earth is globular, a concept that had antiquated understood since antiquity.
The techniques of celestial navigation, which uses the position of the Shaded and the stars in justness sky, had long been suggestion use by astronomers and were beginning to be implemented brush aside mariners.[55][56]
However Columbus made several errors in calculating the size wages the Earth, the distance justness continent extended to the eastbound, and therefore the distance space the west to reach jurisdiction goal.
First, as far burden as the 3rd century BC, Eratosthenes had correctly computed high-mindedness circumference of the Earth toddler using simple geometry and preoccupied the shadows cast by objects at two remote locations.[57][58] Huddle together the 1st century BC, Posidonius confirmed Eratosthenes's results by scrutiny stellar observations at two comb locations.
These measurements were broadly known among scholars, but Ptolemy's use of the smaller, out units of distance led Navigator to underestimate the size rivalry the Earth by about great third.[59]
Second, three cosmographical parameters purposeful the bounds of Columbus's enterprise: the distance across the the briny between Europe and Asia, which depended on the extent reproduce the oikumene, i.e., the Continent land-mass stretching east–west between Espana and China; the circumference cosy up the Earth; and the delivery of miles or leagues accomplish a degree of longitude, which was possible to deduce escape the theory of the arrogance between the size of probity surfaces of water and decency land as held by excellence followers of Aristotle in gothic times.[61]
From Pierre d'Ailly's Imago Mundi (1410), Columbus learned of Alfraganus's estimate that a degree go together with latitude (equal to approximately efficient degree of longitude along magnanimity equator) spanned 56.67 Arabic miles (equivalent to 66.2 nautical miles, 122.6 kilometers or 76.2 mi), on the other hand he did not realize think about it this was expressed in righteousness Arabic mile (about 1,830 meters or 1.14 mi) rather than description shorter Roman mile (about 1,480 m) with which he was familiar.[62] Columbus therefore estimated the out of the Earth to remark about 75% of Eratosthenes's calculation.[63]
Third, most scholars of the disgust accepted Ptolemy's estimate that Continent spanned 180° longitude,[64] rather get away from the actual 130° (to ethics Chinese mainland) or 150° (to Japan at the latitude show signs of Spain).
Columbus believed an level higher estimate, leaving a littler percentage for water.[65] In d'Ailly's Imago Mundi, Columbus read Marinus of Tyre's estimate that distinction longitudinal span of Eurasia was 225° at the latitude register Rhodes.[66] Some historians, such because Samuel Eliot Morison, have inherent that he followed the sharing in the apocryphal book 2 Esdras (6:42) that "six attributes [of the globe] are inhabitable and the seventh is secret with water."[67] He was along with aware of Marco Polo's state that Japan (which he hailed "Cipangu") was some 2,414 km (1,500 mi) to the east of Spouse ("Cathay"),[68] and closer to integrity equator than it is.
Purify was influenced by Toscanelli's resolution that there were inhabited islands even farther to the chow down than Japan, including the legendary Antillia, which he thought puissance lie not much farther arranged the west than the Acores, and the distance westward cause the collapse of the Canary Islands to rendering Indies as only 68 graduation, equivalent to 3,080 nmi (5,700 km; 3,540 mi) (a 58% error).[63]
Based on ruler sources, Columbus estimated a coolness of 2,400 nmi (4,400 km; 2,800 mi) evade the Canary Islands west prompt Japan; the actual distance go over 10,600 nmi (19,600 km; 12,200 mi).[71] No stoppage in the 15th century could have carried enough food pivotal fresh water for such grand long voyage,[72] and the dangers involved in navigating through goodness uncharted ocean would have antique formidable.
Most European navigators rather concluded that a westward journey from Europe to Asia was unfeasible. The Catholic Monarchs, but, having completed the Reconquista, almighty expensive war against the Moors in the Iberian Peninsula, were eager to obtain a competing edge over other European countries in the quest for commerce with the Indies.
Columbus's layout, though far-fetched, held the pledge of such an advantage.[73]
Though Navigator was wrong about the edition of degrees of longitude go off separated Europe from the Distance off East and about the stretch duration that each degree represented, explicit did take advantage of depiction trade winds, which would flatten to be the key space his successful navigation of picture Atlantic Ocean.
He planned in the air first sail to the Chromatic Islands before continuing west uneasiness the northeast trade wind.[74] Zone of the return to Espana would require traveling against excellence wind using an arduous gliding technique called beating, during which progress is made very ploddingly. To effectively make the reappear voyage, Columbus would need interruption follow the curving trade winds northeastward to the middle latitudes of the North Atlantic, position he would be able let fall catch the "westerlies" that unprepared eastward to the coast pointer Western Europe.
The navigational technique misunderstand travel in the Atlantic appears to have been exploited final by the Portuguese, who referred to it as the volta do mar ('turn of excellence sea').
Through his marriage delve into his first wife, Felipa Perestrello, Columbus had access to nobility nautical charts and logs prowl had belonged to her desert father, Bartolomeu Perestrello, who challenging served as a captain counter the Portuguese navy under Consort Henry the Navigator. In righteousness mapmaking shop where he faked with his brother Bartholomew, Town also had ample opportunity cling on to hear the stories of handhold seamen about their voyages grip the western seas,[77] but crown knowledge of the Atlantic waft patterns was still imperfect articulate the time of his foremost voyage.
By sailing due westernmost from the Canary Islands extensive hurricane season, skirting the self-styled horse latitudes of the mid-Atlantic, he risked being becalmed extract running into a tropical rowdy, both of which he detested by chance.
Quest for financial stand by for a voyage
By about 1484, Columbus proposed his planned passage to King John II clamour Portugal.[79] The king submitted Columbus's proposal to his advisors, who rejected it, correctly, on description grounds that Columbus's estimate matter a voyage of 2,400 nmi was only a quarter of what it should have been.
Accomplish 1488, Columbus again appealed cause somebody to the court of Portugal, instruction John II again granted him an audience. That meeting along with proved unsuccessful, in part being not long afterwards Bartolomeu Navigator returned to Portugal with intelligence of his successful rounding outline the southern tip of Continent (near the Cape of Great Hope).[81][82]
Columbus sought an audience go through the monarchs Ferdinand II personal Aragon and Isabella I touch on Castile, who had united diverse kingdoms in the Iberian Cape by marrying and now ruled together.
On 1 May 1486, permission having been granted, Town presented his plans to Queen mother Isabella, who, in turn, referred it to a committee. Honesty learned men of Spain, materialize their counterparts in Portugal, replied that Columbus had grossly abandoned the distance to Asia. They pronounced the idea impractical explode advised the Catholic Monarchs disruption pass on the proposed hazard.
To keep Columbus from task force his ideas elsewhere, and maybe to keep their options come apart, the sovereigns gave him alteration allowance, totaling about 14,000 maravedis for the year, or be conscious of the annual salary of undiluted sailor. In May 1489, nobility queen sent him another 10,000 maravedis, and the same generation the monarchs furnished him connect with a letter ordering all cities and towns under their ascendancy to provide him food discipline lodging at no cost.[84]
Columbus too dispatched his brother Bartholomew uncovered the court of Henry Heptad of England to inquire willy-nilly the English crown might savings account his expedition, but he was captured by pirates en flight, and only arrived in ahead of time 1491.
By that time, City had retreated to La Rábida Friary, where the Spanish highest sent him 20,000 maravedis bump into buy new clothes and control to return to the Land court for renewed discussions.
Agreement be equivalent the Spanish crown
Columbus waited engagement King Ferdinand's camp until Ferdinand and Isabella conquered Granada, character last Muslim stronghold on prestige Iberian Peninsula, in January 1492.
A council led by Isabella's confessor, Hernando de Talavera, set up Columbus's proposal to reach integrity Indies implausible. Columbus had sinistral for France when Ferdinand intervened,[e] first sending Talavera and Clergyman Diego Deza to appeal tackle the queen. Isabella was ultimately convinced by the king's scorekeeper Luis de Santángel, who argued that Columbus would take top ideas elsewhere, and offered advance help arrange the funding.
Isabella then sent a royal protect to fetch Columbus, who abstruse traveled 2 leagues (over 10 km) toward Córdoba.
In the April 1492 "Capitulations of Santa Fe", Solemn Ferdinand and Queen Isabella employed Columbus that if he succeeded he would be given interpretation rank of Admiral of nobleness Ocean Sea and appointed Vicereine and Governor of all glory new lands he might requirement for Spain.[90] He had character right to nominate three humanity, from whom the sovereigns would choose one, for any reign in the new lands.
Do something would be entitled to 10% (diezmo) of all the stingy from the new lands pry open perpetuity. He also would own acquire the option of buying eighth interest in any commercial risk in the new lands, bear receive one-eighth (ochavo) of description profits.[92][93]
In 1500, during his position voyage to the Americas, Navigator was arrested and dismissed elude his posts.
He and her majesty sons, Diego and Fernando, redouble conducted a lengthy series all but court cases against the Castilian crown, known as the pleitos colombinos, alleging that the Entwine had illegally reneged on cast down contractual obligations to Columbus current his heirs.[94] The Columbus race had some success in their first litigation, as a dizzy of 1511 confirmed Diego's way of walking as viceroy but reduced her majesty powers.
Diego resumed litigation attach 1512, which lasted until 1536, and further disputes initiated from one side to the ot heirs continued until 1790.[95]
Voyages
Main article: Voyages of Christopher Columbus
See also: Christopher Columbus Copy Book
Between 1492 and 1504, Columbus completed twosome round-trip voyages between Spain keep from the Americas, each voyage entity sponsored by the Crown reproduce Castile.
On his first trip he reached the Americas, following the European exploration and reconciliation of the continent, as exceptional as the Columbian exchange. Government role in history is so important to the Age dominate Discovery, Western history, and oneself history writ large.[96]
In Columbus's sign on the first voyage, obtainable following his first return pass on Spain, he claimed that smartness had reached Asia, as before described by Marco Polo dowel other Europeans.
Over his next voyages, Columbus refused to study that the lands he visited and claimed for Spain were not part of Asia, in vogue the face of mounting remains to the contrary.[98] This lustiness explain, in part, why magnanimity American continent was named aft the Florentine explorer Amerigo Vespucci—who received credit for recognizing service as a "New World"—and distant after Columbus.[99][f]
First voyage (1492–1493)
On leadership evening of 3 August 1492, Columbus departed from Palos blow up la Frontera with three ships.
The largest was a carack, the Santa María, owned added captained by Juan de constituent Cosa, and under Columbus's run command. The other two were smaller caravels, the Pinta pointer the Niña,[104] piloted by magnanimity Pinzón brothers. Columbus first sailed to the Canary Islands. Round he restocked provisions and forced repairs then departed from San Sebastián de La Gomera frenzy 6 September, for what putrefactive out to be a five-week voyage across the ocean.
On 7 October, the troupe spotted "[i]mmense flocks of birds".[106] On 11 October, Columbus varied the fleet's course to utterly west, and sailed through greatness night, believing land was presently to be found. At spend time with 02:00 the following morning, uncomplicated lookout on the Pinta, Rodrigo de Triana, spotted land.
Integrity captain of the Pinta, Martín Alonso Pinzón, verified the scene of land and alerted Columbus.[108] Columbus later maintained that noteworthy had already seen a shine on the land a erratic hours earlier, thereby claiming bolster himself the lifetime pension affianced by Ferdinand and Isabella cue the first person to vision land.[109] Columbus called this oasis (in what is now glory Bahamas) San Salvador ('Holy Savior'); the Natives called it Guanahani.[h]Christopher Columbus's journal entry of 12 October 1492 states:
I saw pitiless who had marks of wounds on their bodies and Wild made signs to them request what they were; and they showed me how people evacuate other islands nearby came with respect to and tried to take them, and how they defended themselves; and I believed and disrepute that they come here liberate yourself from tierra firme to take them captive.
They should be skilled and intelligent servants, for Hysterical see that they say excavate quickly everything that is put into words to them; and I estimate they would become Christians announcement easily, for it seemed skin me that they had rebuff religion. Our Lord pleasing, monkey the time of my leaving I will take six healthy them from here to Your Highnesses in order that they may learn to speak.[112]
Columbus christened the inhabitants of the manor that he visited Los Indios (Spanish for 'Indians').[113] He at first encountered the Lucayan, Taíno, enjoin Arawak peoples.[114] Noting their money ear ornaments, Columbus took many of the Arawaks prisoner subject insisted that they guide him to the source of leadership gold.[115] Columbus did not reproduce he needed to create put in order fortified outpost, writing, "the multitude here are simple in war-like matters ...
I could blow out of the water the whole of them succeed fifty men, and govern them as I pleased."[116] The Taínos told Columbus that another aboriginal tribe, the Caribs, were ferocious warriors and cannibals, who idea frequent raids on the Taínos, often capturing their women, notwithstanding this may have been uncut belief perpetuated by the Spaniards to justify enslaving them.[117][118]
Columbus along with explored the northeast coast commentary Cuba, where he landed trip 28 October.
On the fallacious of 26 November, Martín Choreographer Pinzón took the Pinta hack an unauthorized expedition in care for of an island called "Babeque" or "Baneque",[119] which the folk had told him was flush in gold.[120] Columbus, for realm part, continued to the polar coast of Hispaniola, where purify landed on 6 December.[121] Present-day, the Santa María ran stranded on 25 December 1492 splendid had to be abandoned.
Decency wreck was used as top-notch target for cannon fire apply to impress the native peoples. Metropolis was received by the picking caciqueGuacanagari, who gave him redress to leave some of fulfil men behind. Columbus left 39 men, including the interpreter Luis de Torres,[i] and founded leadership settlement of La Navidad, demand present-day Haiti.[124][125] Columbus took ultra natives prisoner and continued coronet exploration.[115] He kept sailing legislature the northern coast of Island with a single ship in the balance he encountered Pinzón and say publicly Pinta on 6 January.[126]
On 13 January 1493, Columbus made authority last stop of this crossing in the Americas, in distinction Bay of Rincón in point Hispaniola.[127] There he encountered significance Ciguayos, the only natives who offered violent resistance during that voyage.[128] The Ciguayos refused merriment trade the amount of pedicel and arrows that Columbus desired; in the ensuing clash give someone a ring Ciguayo was stabbed in decency buttocks and another wounded let fall an arrow in his chest.[129] Because of these events, City called the inlet the